|
 |
|
|
 |
G. Kee Jim,
D.V.M., Calvin W. Booker, D.V.M., M.Vet.Sc., A trial was conducted in a commercial research feedlot in western Canada to compare three initial implants and two terminal implants on the performance, carcass grading, and animal health of beef calves. Seven hundred and twenty recently weaned, auction market-derived, exotic crossbred steer calves weighing between 545 pounds and 679 pounds were ranked by weight and randomly allocated to one of six experimental groups as follows:
The animals in each experimental group in a weight block were housed in separate pens. Each pen of twelve animals was an experimental unit, and each group of six pens (one from each experimental group) constituted a weight block. The outcome parameters that were measured included daily dry matter intake (DDMI), average daily gain (ADG), the dry matter intake-to-gain ratio (DM:G), yield grade (YG), quality grade (QG), morbidity, and mortality. The DDMI of the FE72/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the Ral/Rev and Ral/Plus groups from day 60 to day 69. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences in DDMI between the experimental groups from day 0 to day 59, day 70 to day 104, day 105 to slaughter, day 0 to 69, day 0 to day 104, or day 0 to slaughter. The most relevant ADG parameters are cumulative ADG from day 0 to slaughter (live and carcass weight basis). On a live weight basis, the ADG of the Syn S/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the Ral/Rev, FE72/Rev, and Syn S/Rev groups. On a carcass weight basis, the ADG of the Syn S/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the Ral/Rev, Ral/Plus, FE72/Rev, and Syn S/Rev groups. In addition, the ADG of the FE72/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the Ral/Rev group. Terminal implant contrasts demonstrated that the ADG (live and carcass weight basis) of animals receiving Synovex Plus was significantly (p<0.05) higher than animals receiving Revalor-S. Initial implant contrasts demonstrated that the ADG (carcass weight basis) of animals receiving Synovex S was significantly (p<0.05) higher than animals receiving Ralgro implants; however, this difference was not significant (p>0.05) on a live weight basis. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences in ADG (live or carcass weight basis) between animals receiving Ralgro implants FE72 as compared to Ralgro or Synovex S. The most relevant DM:G parameters are cumulative DM:G from day 0 to slaughter (live and carcass weight basis). On a live weight basis, the DM:G of the Syn S/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) lower than the Ral/Rev, FE72/Rev, and Syn S/Rev groups. In addition, the DM:G of the Ral/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) lower than the Ral/Rev group. On a carcass weight basis, the DM:G of the Syn S/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) lower than the Ral/Rev and FE72/Rev groups. Terminal implant contrasts demonstrated that the DM:G (live and carcass weight basis) of animals receiving Synovex Plus was significantly (p<0.05) lower than animals receiving Revalor-S. Initial implant contrasts demonstrated that there were no significant (p<0.05) differences in DM:G (live or carcass weight basis) between animals receiving Ralgro implants, Ralgro FE72, or Synovex S. The carcass grading data are summarized in Table 10. The proportion of animals grading YG A3 in the Syn S/Rev group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than in all other experimental groups. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences in the proportion of animals grading YG A1, YG A2, YG B1, YG B4, QG A, QG AA, or QG AAA between the experimental groups. Terminal implant contrasts demonstrated that there were no significant (p>0.05) differences in the proportion of animals grading YG A3, YG B4, or QG AAA between animals receiving Synovex Plus versus Revalor-S. Initial implant contrasts demonstrated that the proportion of animals grading YG A3 was significantly (p<0.05) higher in animals implanted with Synovex S versus Ralgro implants. There was no significant (p0.05) difference in the proportion of animals grading YG B4 or QG AAA in animals implanted with Synovex S versus Ralgro implants. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences in the proportion of animals grading YG A3, YG B4, or QG AAA between animals receiving Ralgro FE72 as compared to Ralgro/Synovex S. There were few animal health events recorded during the study. There were no significant (p<0.05) differences in BRD treatment or overall mortality rates between the experimental groups. There were no rider treatments, rectal prolapse treatments, or aggressive behavior observations in any of the experimental groups. Introduction Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the relative efficacy of various estrogenic and androgenic implant strategies on the feedlot performance and carcass characteristics of yearling steers1-8. However, there are limited available data that compare various estrogenic and androgenic implant strategies in beef feedlot steer calves arriving at the feedlot weighing between 500 pounds and 700 pounds that are subsequently fed for 180 to 200 days. The purpose of the investigation reported herein was to compare three initial implants and two terminal implants on the performance, carcass grading, and animal health of feedlot steer calves in western Canada. Materials and methods Trial facilities The trial was conducted in a research feedlot near Airdrie, Alberta, which has a capacity of 1,200 animals. The animals were housed in open air, dirt floor pens which are arranged side by side with 20% porosity wood fence wind breaks. The dimensions of each pen are 7.6 m x 30.5 m. Twelve animals were housed per pen, and there was 0.6 m of bunk space available for each animal. A centrally located facility was utilized for allocation, weighing, implanting, and treatment of the study animals. This facility has cattle handling equipment, an individual animal scale (Model DF 2000S, Cell Builders Inc., Calgary, Alberta), a chute-side computer for the recording of animal health data, and sorting pens to facilitate the return of animals to designated research pens. Trial animals The animals utilized in the study were recently weaned, exotic crossbred beef steer calves purchased from auction markets throughout western Canada. The animals selected for the study were approximately five to 10 months of age and weighed between 545 and 679 pounds. Upon arrival at the feedlot, the animals were moved through a hydraulic chute for a group of procedures known collectively as processing. All animals were eartagged (to provide unique, individual animal identification) and vaccinated against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) and parainfluenza-3 (PI3) viruses (Bovishield™ IBR-PI3, Pfizer Animal Health, London, Ontario). In addition, each animal received a multivalent clostridial and Haemophilus somnus vaccine (Fermicon 7-Somnugen™, Boehringer Ingelheim {Canada} Ltd., Burlington, Ontario), and a Pasteurella haemolytica bacterial extract (Presponse®, Ayerst Veterinary Laboratories, Guelph, Ontario). Also, the animals received topical ivermectin (0.5%) at the rate of 1.0 mL per 10 kg body weight (BW) (Invomec® Pour On, Merck Agvet, Pointe Claire-Dorval, Quebec) and subcutaneous tilmicosin (Micotil®, Provel, Division of Eli Lilly Canada, Inc., Guelph, Ontario) at a rate of 10 mg per kg BW. One thousand five hundred and fifty animals which arrived at the feedlot from September 18, 1996 to September 26, 1996 were candidates for the study. Animals that were deemed unsuitable for the study because of breed type, sex, lack of appropriate ear, temperament, an existing growth implant, or morbidity were removed as candidates. Experimental design Using variance estimates for average daily gain (ADG) and the dry matter intake-to-gain ratio (DM:G) from trials previously conducted at Animal Research International by Jim, Guichon, Booker, Schunicht, and Wildman, it was calculated that approximately 10 pens per experimental group would be required to have a 90% chance of detecting differences in ADG or DM:G of 2% to 3% or larger (ß=0.10), and to be 95% certain that these differences are not due to chance (?=0.05). Animals that fulfilled the criteria described in the trial animals section were weighed on two consecutive days (day -2 and day -1). The animals were ranked by average weight, and animals weighing between 545 and 679 pounds were selected as the final candidates for allocation to the study. Ten weight blocks were established, and within each weight block animals were randomly assigned to one of six experimental groups as follows: Ral/Rev, which received a 36-mg zeranol implant (Ralgro) on day 0 followed by an estradiol 17ß/trenbolone acetate implant (Revalor-S) on day 70; Ral/Plus, which received a 36-mg zeranol implant (Ralgro) on day 0 followed by an estradiol benzoate/trenbolone acetate implant (Synovex Plus) on day 70; FE72/Rev, which received a 72-mg zeranol implant (Ralgro FE72) on day 0 followed by an estradiol benzoate/trenbolone acetate implant (Synovex Plus) on day 105; Syn S/Rev, which received an estradiol benzoate implant (Synovex S) on day 0 followed by an estradiol 17ß/trenbolone acetate implant (Revalor-S) on day 60; or Syn S/Plus, which received an estradiol benzoate implant (Synovex S) on day 0 followed by an estradiol benzoate/trenbolone acetate implant (Synovex Plus) on day 60. Animals were allocated to the study in two groups. The first five weight blocks were allocated on October 7, 1996, and the last five weight blocks were allocated on October 10, 1996. The animals in each experimental group in a weight block were housed in separate pens. Each pen of twelve animals was an experimental unit, and each group of six pens (one from each experimental group) constituted a weight block. A total of 720 animals were allocated to the study. Feeding program A standard mixed complete feedlot diet, formulated to meet or exceed the nutritional requirements of feedlot cattle (Nutritional Requirements of Beef Cattle, National Research Council, 1996) was offered ad libitum. The experimental diets were blended by combining dry-rolled barley, barley silage, and pelleted supplement in a truck-mounted mixer box (Model 490-14, Roto-Mix, Inc., Dodge City, Kansas) equipped with electronic load cells. The supplement was manufactured by a commercial feed mill (Masterfeeds, Calgary, Alberta). The diets were delivered to the pens once or twice daily. Daily feed allowances to each pen were recorded. Water was provided ad libitum from wells at the feedlot. The composition of the diet supplement is shown in Table 1. The supplement was manufactured by a commercial feed mill (Masterfeeds,™ Calgary, Alberta) Table 1. Calculated composition (100% dry matter basis) of the supplement.
Table 2. Proportional composition (100% dry matter basis) of the mixed complete diets.
The mixed complete diets were sampled on days 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 of the study. These samples were analyzed for crude protein, acid detergent fibre (ADF), calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), and salt (NaCl) (Northwest Labs, Lethbridge, Alberta). Animal health The cattle were observed once or twice daily by experimental pencheckers. Cattle exhibiting symptoms of illness were moved to the hospital facility, diagnosed, and treated as per written treatment protocols provided by the consulting veterinarians. The treatment events, including the treatment date, presumptive diagnosis, drug(s) administered, and dosage used were recorded on the chute-side computer system. All animals deemed to be "chronics" by the attending feedlot veterinarians were weighed and removed from the study. All animals that died during the study were weighed by feedlot personnel and necropsied by the attending feedlot veterinarian. If the cause of death could not be ascertained by gross post-mortem examination, tissues were submitted to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory to aid in determining the cause of death. Marketing All animals were slaughtered on day 182 of the study at the same packing plant (Lakeside Packers, Subsidiary of IBP, Brooks, Alberta). Data collection and management At the time of allocation (day 0), the frame size of each animal was measured (a scale of 0-9), and the average frame size for each pen was calculated. All animals on the study were individually weighed on days -2, -1, 60, 70, 105, 180, and 181 of the study. In addition, the carcass weight of each animal was converted to a live weight using a fixed carcass yield of 59.0%. Also, all animals that died and those that were removed from the study were weighed. These data were subsequently entered into a spreadsheet program (Quattro Pro for Windows, Version 5.00, Borland International Inc., Scotts Valley, California) and verified. Average pen weights were calculated at days 0 (average of day -1 and -2), 60, 70, 105, slaughter live weight basis (average of days 180 and 181), and slaughter carcass weight basis (calculated as the hot carcass weight converted to a live weight using a fixed yield of 59.0%). Pen-based DDMI, ADG, and DM:G were calculated for the intervals day 0 to day 59, day 60 to day 69, day 70 to day 104, day 105 to slaughter (live and carcass weight basis), day 0 to day 59, day 0 to day 69, day 0 to day 104, and day 0 to slaughter (live and carcass weight basis). The outcome variables used to assess feedlot performance were calculated on a pen basis as follows: DDMI = (total dry matter delivered in the interval minus total dry matter removed in the interval) divided by the number of head days in the interval ADG = (·weight at the end of the interval minus · weight at the beginning of the interval) divided by the number of head days in the interval DM:G = DDMI divided by ADG Grading data on all carcasses were obtained at slaughter using an electronic identification system (E.I.D. Tags, Allflex, Dallas, Texas) to track the carcasses through the packing plant. The proportion of animals grading Canadian yield grade (YG) A1, YG A2, YG A3, YG B1, YG B4, Canadian quality grade (QG) A, QG AA, QG AAA was calculated for each pen. The computerized animal health data were summarized for each pen. From these data, the bovine respiratory disease (BRD) treatment, rider treatment, rectal prolapse treatment, aggressive behavior observation, and overall mortality (mortality due to all causes) rates were calculated for each experimental group. Statistical Analysis The data were analyzed using an analytic software program (The SAS™ System for Windows, Release 6.11, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina). The chemical analyses of the mixed complete diets were compared between the experimental groups using least squares analysis of variance11. Frame size, DDMI, ADG, DM:G, and the yield and quality grade parameters were compared between the experimental groups using least squares analysis of variance for block and treatment effects11. Frame size was tested as a covariate of DDMI, ADG, and DM:G. Those covariates with significant (p<0.05) effects were included in the final model used for comparison of each parameter between the experimental groups12. Pairwise comparisons between experimental groups were performed when significant (p<0.05) treatment effects were detected in the analysis of variance. Also, initial and terminal implant contrasts were performed for the following parameters: DDMI day 0 to slaughter, ADG day 0 to slaughter (live and carcass weight basis), DM:G day 0 to slaughter (live and carcass weight basis), YG A3, YG B4, and QG AAA. The animal health parameters were compared between the experimental groups using linear logistic regression techniques to adjust for the clustering of animal health events within pens.13, 14, 15 Results The chemical analysis of the mixed complete diets is presented in Table 3. Chemical analysis performed by Norwest Labs, Lethbridge, Alberta. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences in the levels of crude protein, ADF, Ca, P, K, Mg, Na, or NaCl between the experimental groups.
Table 3. Chemical analysisa (100% dry matter basis) of the mixed complete diets by experimental group. Experimental Group
The average initial weight of animals in each of the experimental groups was 615 pounds. There was no significant (p<0.05) difference in frame size between the experimental groups. The average slaughter weight of animals in the Ral/Rev, Ral/Plus, FE72/Rev, FE72/Plus, Syn S/Rev, and Syn S/Plus groups was 1198, 1216, 1198, 1214, 1202, and 1234 pounds, respectively. The average carcass weight of animals in the Ral/Rev, Ral/Plus, FE72/Rev, FE72/Plus, Syn S/Rev, and Syn S/Plus groups was 716, 727, 718, 728, 721, and 739 pounds, respectively. The interval and cumulative DDMI data are summarized in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. The DDMI of the FE72/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the Ral/Rev and Ral/Plus groups from day 60 to day 69. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences in DDMI between the experimental groups from day 0 to day 59, day 70 to day 104, day 105 to slaughter, day 0 to 69, day 0 to day 104, or day 0 to slaughter. Table 4. Summary of the interval daily dry matter intake by experimental group. Experimental Group
1. Means in the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05) different. Table 5. Summary of the cumulative daily dry matter intake by experimental group. Experimental Group
1.Contrasts for Day 0 to Slaughter: Revalor-S versus Synovex Plus, p=0.1002; Ralgro implants versus FE72, p=0.3255; Ralgro implants versus Synovex S, p=0.3103; and FE72 versus Synovex S, p=0.9746. The interval and cumulative ADG are summarized in Tables 6 and 7, respectively. The most relevant ADG parameters are cumulative ADG from day 0 to slaughter (live and carcass weight basis). On a live basis, the ADG of the Syn S/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the Ral/Rev, FE72/Rev, and Syn S/Rev groups. On a carcass weight basis, the ADG of the Syn S/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the Ral/Rev, Ral/Plus, FE72/Rev, and Syn S/Rev groups. In addition, The ADG of the FE72/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than the Ral/Rev group. Terminal implant contrasts demonstrated that the ADG (live and carcass weight basis) of animals receiving Synovex Plus was significantly (p<0.05) higher than animals receiving Revalor-S. Initial implant contrasts demonstrated that the ADG (carcass weight basis) of animals receiving Synovex S was significantly (p<0.05) higher than animals receiving Ralgro implants; however, this difference was not significant (p>0.05) on a live weight basis. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences in ADG (live or carcass weight basis) between animals receiving Ralgro implants FE72 as compared to Ralgro or Synovex S.
Table 6. Summary of the interval average daily gain by experimental group. Experimental Group
1. Means in the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05) different. Table 7. Summary of the cumulative average daily gain by experimental group. Experimental Group
1. Means in the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05) different. Contrast for Day 0 to Slaughter Live Weight: Revalor-S versus Synovex Plus, p=0.0006; Ralgro versus FE72, p=0.8155; Ralgro versus Synovex S, p=0.0766; and FE72 versus Synovex S, p=0.1217. Contrast for Day 0 to Slaughter Carcass Weight: Revalor-S versus Synovex Plus, p=0.0005; Ralgro versus FE72, p=0.4212; Ralgro versus Synovex S, p=0.0274; and FE72 versus Synovex S, p=0.1488. The interval and cumulative DM:G are summarized in Tables 8 and 9, respectively. The most relevant DM:G parameters are cumulative DM:G from day 0 to slaughter (live and carcass weight basis). On a live weight basis, the DM:G of the Syn S/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) lower than the Ral/Rev, FE72/Rev, and Syn S/Rev groups. In addition, the DM:G of the Ral/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) lower than the Ral/Rev group. On a carcass weight basis, the DM:G of the Syn S/Plus group was significantly (p<0.05) lower than the Ral/Rev and FE72/Rev groups. Terminal implant contrasts demonstrated that the DM:G (live and carcass weight basis) of animals receiving Synovex Plus was significantly (p<0.05) lower than animals receiving Revalor-S. Initial implant contrasts demonstrated that there were no significant (p<0.05) differences in DM:G (live or carcass weight basis) between animals receiving Ralgro implants, Ralgro FE72, or Synovex S. Table 8. Summary of the interval dry matter intake to gain ratio by experimental group. Experimental Group
1. Means in the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05) different. Table 9. Summary of the cumulative dry matter intake to gain ratio by experimental group. Experimental Group
1. Means in the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05) different. Contrast for Day 0 to Slaughter Live Weight: Revalor-S versus Synovex Plus, p=0.0026; Ralgro implants versus Synovex S, p=0.2009; and FE72 versus Synovex S, p=0.0753. Contrast for Day 0 to Slaughter Carcass Weight: Revalor-S versus Synovex Plus, p=0.0058; Ralgro implants versus FE72, p=0.9237; Ralgro implants versus Synovex S, p=0.1030; and FE72 versus Synovex S, p=0.1239. The carcass grading data are summarized in Table 10. The proportion of animals grading YG A3 in the Syn S/Rev group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than in all other experimental groups. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences in the proportion of animals grading YG A1, YG A2, YG B4, QG A, QG AA, or QG AAA between the experimental groups.
Table 10. Summary of the carcass grading data by experimental group. Experimental Group
1. Means in the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p<0.05) different. Contrast of Yield Grade A3: Revalor-S versus Synovex Plus, p=0.1175; Ralgro versus FE72, p=0.2512; Ralgro implants versus Synovex S, p=0.0041; and FE72 versus Synovex S, p=0.0693. Contrast of Yield Grade B4: Revalor-S versus Synovex Plus, p=0.0658; Ralgro implants versus FE72, p=0.1577; Ralgro implants versus Synovex S, p=0.3620; and FE72 versus Synovex S, p=0.6084. Contrast of Quality Grade AAA: Revalor-S versus Synovex Plus, p=0.1228; Ralgro implants versus FE72, p=0.4212; Ralgro implants versus Synovex S, p=0.0867; and FE72 versus Synovex S, p=0.3524. Terminal implant contrasts demonstrated that there were no significant (p<0.05) differences in the proportion of animals grading YG A3, YG B4, or QG AAA between animals receiving Synovex Plus versus Revalor-S. Initial implant contrasts demonstrated that the proportion of animals grading YG A3 was significantly (p<0.05) higher in animals implanted with Synovex S versus Ralgro implants. There was no significant (p>0.05) difference in the proportion of animals grading YG B4 or QG AAA in animals implanted with Synovex S versus Ralgro implants. There were no significant (p>0.05) differences in the proportion of animals grading YG A3, YG B4, or QG AAA between animals receiving Ralgro FE72 as compared to Ralgro implants or Synovex S. There were few animals health events recorded during the study (Table 11). There were no significant (p<0.05) differences in BRD treatment or overall mortality rates between the experimental groups. There were no rider treatments, rectal prolapse treatments, or aggressive behavior observations in any of the experimental groups. Three animals died during the study. Two animals died due to musculoskeletal injuries and one animal died of peritonitis. Thirty-two animals were deemed to be "chronics" and were removed from the study. Table 11. Animal health summary by experimental group. Experimental Group
Acknowledgments This project was wholly supported by a research grant from Mallinckrodt Veterinary Inc., Mundelein, Illinois. We thank the management and staff of Animal Research International, Airdrie, Alberta for their assistance and cooperation in conducting this study. References 1. Anderson PT. Trenbolone acetate as a growth promotant. The Compendium 1991; Vol 13 7: 1179-1189. 2. Trenkle A. Evaluation of Synovex-S + Finaplix-S and Revalor implant programs in finishing steers. J Anim. Sci. Vol. 68, Suppl. 1, 1990. Abstract 593, p. 479. 3. Booker CW, Guichon PT, Schunicht OC, Jim GK. Evaluation of two zeranol (Ralgro® 36) implant programs on the animal health, carcass grading, and performance of commercial feedlot steers. Optimizing Cattle Performance: Understanding Science to Increase Beef Production. Mallinckrodt Veterinary, Inc. 1996. 4. Pritchard RH. Implant strategies for feedlot steers - A four trial summary. Current and Future Practices in Cattle Production. Mallinckrodt Veterinary, Inc. 1995. 5. Prouty F. Synovex® Plus™ data review and the use of low and high dose estrogen implants in reimplant programs. Feedlot Consultant Seminar on Growth Implants, Fort Dodge Animal Health. 1997. 6. Rains J, Elam J. The effect of Synovex-S versus Revalor-S upon the performance and carcass characteristics of commercially fed crossbred steers. Technical Bulletin No. 8. Hoechst-Roussel Agri-Vet Co., Somerville, N.J. 08876. 1992. 7. Hoechst-Roussel Agri-Vet Co. Pooled summary of five feedyard trials with Revalor-S, Finaplix-S, and/or Synovex-S administered to yearling steers during the finishing period. Technical Bulletin No. 1. Hoechst-Roussel Agri-Vet Co., Somerville, N.J. 08876. 1991. 8. Preston RL, Rains JR. Response dynamics to Revalor-S implantation in steers. Technical Bulletin No. 10. Hoechst-Roussel Agri-Vet Co., Somerville, N.J. 08876. 1994. 9. Snedcor GW, Cochran WG. Statistical Methods. 7th ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1987: 175-191. 10. SAS Institute Inc. SAS/STAT User's Guide, Version 6, Fourth Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Cary, North Carolina: SAS Institute Inc., 1989: 1686 pp. 11. Van Donkersgoed J, Ribble CS, Boyer LG, Townsend HGG. Epidemiological study of enzootic pneumonia in dairy calves in Saskatchewan. Can Vet J Res 1993; 57: 247-254. 12. McDermott JJ, Schukken YH. A review of methods used to adjust for cluster effects in explanatory epidemiological studies of animal populations. Prev Vet Med 1994; 18: 155-173. 13. McDermott JJ, Schukken YH, Shoukri MM. Study design and analytical methods for data collected from clusters of animals. Prev Vet Med 1994; 18: 175-191. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
  Implants at a Glance |
Technical Reports |
Management Tips
|
